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)
Pedro Henrique Miranda Gomes; Vágner Camilo Alves
Rev. Carta Inter., Belo Horizonte, v. 15, n. 3, 2020, p. 232-254
239
ou transitando nestes sistemas ou redes” (William et al. 2009, 1, tradução
nossa
10
). Esta conceituação, ao delimitar mais adequadamente o que seriam
ataques cibernéticos, ao mesmo tempo indica que eles podem ser desferidos
em diversos âmbitos essencialmente diferentes entre si, incluindo o cibercrime,
ciberespionagem, hacktivismo
11
ou ataques em contexto de guerra.
Ciberataques tornam-se mais danosos na medida em que, nas últimas décadas,
evoluíram do âmbito da comunicação e do comércio virtual para atingir as
chamadas infraestruturas críticas, abrangendo setores essenciais à civilização
moderna, como o setor bancário, eleitoral, sistemas de transporte, de água, de
energia e outros (Singer e Friedman 2014). Isso faz com que um ciberataque
seja um golpe particularmente efetivo em um país como a Estônia, no qual o
cotidiano está fortemente conectado com a rede (chegando mesmo a ter eleições
online), como ficou claro nos ataques de 2007 ao país (Maynard 2018).
Estes ataques, por operarem no espaço cibernético e, portanto, desconectarem-
se do espaço físico, podem acertar múltiplos alvos de uma só vez, de forma
quase instantânea. Ao considerar-se a integração da infraestrutura crítica ao
ciberespaço, resulta que ciberataques podem ter o resultado prático de dano de
infraestrutura física, derivado de uma ação no meio virtual
12
.
Há, ainda, duas propriedades, nesses ataques, particularmente importantes
quando se considera seu uso político: as questões da atribuição e da previsibilidade
dos danos. Ataques cibernéticos são bem difíceis de terem uma origem atribuída
e, particularmente, difíceis de terem conexões políticas que derivem em objetivos
políticos calculáveis. Ademais, devido à natureza global da conexão com a
internet, é possível o espalhamento de uma determinada contaminação, o que
não exclui eventuais danos à própria origem dos ataques, ao contrário do que
acontece, em geral, quando se dispara um míssil em direção a um alvo distante,
por exemplo.
Singer e Friedman (2014) indicam três tipos de ataque cibernético: (1) ataques
de disponibilidade, que visam barrar o acesso a uma rede, ao sobrecarrega-la
10 Do original: deliberate actions to alter, disrupt, deceive, degrade, or destroy computer systems or networks
or the information and/or programs resident in or transiting these systems or networks.
11 Atividade que visa a promover ou a resistir a mudanças sociais ou políticas utilizando-se de métodos cibernéticos
de protesto, que são, de uma só vez, não violentos e questionáveis (Singer e Friedman 2014).
12 É o caso do software Stuxnet, que atacou o sistema operacional das centrífugas de enriquecimento de urânio
iranianas e causou destruição — física — de seu maquinário, levando a uma queda de 20% no ritmo de
trabalho do programa nuclear iraniano no espaço de 5 meses (Maynard 2018).